Nabāṭū people developed their temple architecture mainly in present-day Jordan, southern Syria, southern Israel and north-western Saudi Arabia. The precise origin of Nabāṭū people remains uncertain. Nabāṭū temple architecture was influenced by the multiple cultures they came in contact with.
→ Al-Khazneh (The Treasury) , the funerary temple of kings Ḥārīṯat III & Ḥārīṯat IV, in Petra, Jordan [Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=94374000]
Development History
Nabāṭū people appear in historical records from 4th century BCE, although there seems to be evidence of their existence before that time. Nabataea was independent at least since 4th century BCE, till its annexation by Roman empire in 106 CE.
Pre-Nabāṭū kingdom settlements:
The region in and around Raqēmō (present-day Petra in Jordan) has been inhabited since ~7000 BCE, and by Nabāṭū people in particular at least since 4th century BCE. The site would later become their capital. Nabateans were initially ruled by a council of elders till the formation of a centralized authority through Nabāṭū kingdom.
Nabāṭū Kingdom (mid-3rd century BCE – 106 CE):
Most of Nabāṭū temple architecture development occurred under Nabāṭū kingdom. Nabāṭū institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensability of trade organization and war; the subsequent outcomes of the Hellenic expeditions on the Nabāṭū people played a role in the political centralization of the Nabatu tribe. During this time, Hellenic architecture would have started to have significant influence on Nabāṭū architecture if not earlier.
Nabāṭū peple began to mint coins during 2nd century BCE, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed. The oldest Nabāṭū inscription, dating from 168 BCE, mention its first known king Ḥārīṯat I . Avdat was a seasonal camping ground for Nabāṭū caravans travelling along the early Petra–Gaza road (Darb es-Sultan) in 3rd – late 2nd century BCE. The city’s original name was changed to Avdat in honor of Nabāṭū King ʿŌbōdaṯ I (r. 96 BCE – 85 BCE) , who, according to tradition, was revered as a deity and was buried there — the remains Temple of Oboda dedicated to Ōbōdaṯ I can be found in Avdat.
Under Ḥārīṯat III (r. 87 BCE – 62 BCE) Nabāṭū reached its greatest extent but was later forced to become a Roman vassal state due to a series of conflicts with Judea and Roman Empire. Ḥārīṯat III styled himself as Philhellen (“friend of the Helenes“), and endeavoured to bring Hellenic architecture and Roman architecture to Nabāṭū capital, Petra, and to new settlements such as Humayma, including a 26.8 km aqueduct.
The kingdom allied itself with Parθava empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) at least during the reign of Malīḵū I (r. 59 BCE – 30 BCE) , which would have brought Parθavan architecture influence {Parθavan architecture was itself influenced by Hellenic architecture}.
Since 1st century CE, Nabāṭū kingdom saw itself slowly surrounded by the expanding Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE) . While Nabāṭū kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a client kingdom under the influence of Rome.
Nabāṭū kingdom was completely annexed by Roman empire in 106 CE, and made part of the province Arabia Petraea .
Structural Details
Columns:
Nabāṭū temples could have wide variety of column designs. As seen in Petra (in Jordan), they adopted Hellenic and Roman architecture column designs. They would also use their own designs. Both free-standing and engaged columns can be found in Nabatean temples.
→ Columns at entrance of a rock-cut temple in Siq al-Barid/Little Petra in in the Ma’an Governorate of Jordan. The middle two columns are undecorated cylindrical, while outer two columns are engaged undecorated rectangular columns. Estimated built 1st century CE [Source: File:Siq al-Berid 04.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
→ Columns in Temple of Oboda in Avdat, Southern district, Israel. The columns can be seen made of circular stone blocks placed one above other [Source: File:Avdat view to the Negev.JPG – Wikimedia Commons]
→ Elephant-Headed Capital seen in Great Temple Complex in Petra, Jordan. [Source: File:Jordan1261.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
Entrances and Entrance facades:
Entrances to the temples would be usually led by a plain street ending directly at the entrance, or a series of steps which could be built or rock-cut. In most cases, the steps would be undecorated; the decorations would start with facades. Some Nabatean tempes had elaborate entrance facades.
Eagles, the symbol of the deity Dushara , were sometimes carved above doorways for protection.
→ Steps of Great Temple Complex in Petra, Jordan [Source: File:Great Temple, Petra, Jordan5.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
→ Similar entrance facades of rock-cut temples in Raqēmō (present-day Petra in Jordan). Both have an upper storey formed by broken pediments flanking a tholos structure. The columns are undecorated.
Left: Al-Khazneh (The Treasury) , the funerary temple of Ḥārīṯat III & Ḥārīṯat IV, has a tetrastyle prostyle entrance porch with the columns supporting a complete pediment. The columns seem to be of Corinthian order. Built 1st century CE [Source: Petra – Wikipedia]
Right: Ad Deir (The Monastery) lacks the entrance porch, and also seems to be have been more eroded. There seems to be less decoration than the facade of Al-Khazneh. Built 1st century CE [Source: Ad Deir – Wikipedia]
Depiction of deities:
Nabāṭū people initially used to represent their deities as featureless pillars or blocks. Their most common monuments to the deities, commonly known as “deity blocks”, involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time Nabataeans were influenced by Hellene and Rome and their deities became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features.
Betyls are blocks of stone which represent the deities of Nabāṭū people. The term “betyl” derives from the Hellenic Βαιτύλια and a myth the Hellenes told of Ouranos who created animated stones that fell from heaven. Betyls were commonly placed on altars or platforms and religious rituals were performed there.
The majority of the known Nabāṭū deties were foreign, mainly adopted from Hellenic and Roman pantheon. Many Nabāṭū deities were being connected with Helleno-Roman deities , especially during the time that Nabāṭū was under Roman influence. Kemetian deity Ɑsɛt was not only seen in Nabāṭū religion but also Helleic and Roman religions. The deity Dwšrʾ is oftentimes mentioned as a version of Hellenic deity Dionysos. The deities Helios and Érōs are also found in Nabataean temples.
→ A Nabataean face betyl [Source: File:Nabataean betyl 1.JPG – Wikimedia Commons]
→ Nabāṭū depictions of deities:
- Dwšrʾ [Source: File:Dhushara.JPG – Wikimedia Commons]
- Nabāṭū depiction of ʿAttarʿattā dating ~100 CE [Source: File:Atargatis, Nabatean, c.100 AD, Jordan Archaeological Museum.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
Temple layouts:
Nabāṭū temples vary greatly in design with no single standard layout. The Nabataeans adopted and adapted different elements of the temple designs from the cultures that they traded with. Indian, Hellenic, Roman, Iranian, Kemetian, and Syrian elements of temple design can be seen to varying degrees of incorporation. Known as “High places”, the shrines, temples, and altars would usually be open air structures placed atop nearby mountain, or rock-cut into cliffs.
In case of Ad Deir in Petra, during the winter solstice, the sun is filtered inside illuminating the podium of a deity. Just at this moment, the silhouette of the mountain opposite draws the head of a lion, a sacred animal for Nabateans.
Some temples could have been also used as funerary monuments eg. Ak-Khazneh of Petra entombed Aretas III (r. 87-62 BCE) and Aretas IV (r. 9 BCE – 40 CE).
→ 3D constructions of Temple of Khirbet ed-Dharih in Jordan (1st century BCE) [Source: Classical Monuments]
→ Layout of Temple of Oboda in Avdat , Southern district, Israel. The temple dedicated to the cult of Obodas I (r. 96–85 BCE) was built with a hard limestone in 9 BCE during the reign of Obodas II. The temple is a tripartite structure: consisting of a porch, hall and adytum; its overall dimensions are 14m x 11m. [Source: Avdat – Wikipedia]
| The building was divided into 4 rooms: 1. The first and second rooms were unequal subdivisions of the adytum (debir), the first room is the eastern room which is the smaller of the two measuring at 3m x 4 m. 2. The second room was the western room and the larger of the two rooms measuring 5m x 4m. 3. The third room was the hall (hekhal), an oblong shape measuring 8m, which is now completely covered by a Talus. 4. The fourth room is the porch (‘ulam) divided into two compartments one facing west measuring approximately 4m x 4m and the other facing east measuring ~ 4m x 4.5m were divided by a 60cm wall. A worshiper entered through the porch, which faces south, proceeded through the hall to the rooms of the adytum at the northern end. The worshiper then turned about face toward south to worship the images of the deities placed in niches in the wall. The western room contained two niches which may have contained the images of two Nabāṭū deities Lat and Dushara. The other room contained a larger single niche where it is believed the defied image of Obodas I was worshiped. |
→ Image of Temple of the Winged Lions in Petra, Jordan. The grand entrance of the temple consists of a large double colonnade running 85m in length and ending in a porch 9.5m in length flanked on either side by large columns. This doorway then leads into a 100㎡ cella flanked by a mixture of engaged and standing columns. [Source: Temple of the Winged Lions – Wikipedia]
→ Plan of Great Temple Complex , a rectangular complex aligned on a northeast–southwest axis in Petra, Jordan. [Source: File:Pétra. Plan du Grand Temple avec les Thermes.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
Related videos:
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