Temple Architecture Styles : Biritumian (Mesopotamian) architecture

Originating and developing in the region Biritum/Birit Narim (Mesopotamia) , Biritumian temples were developed by various civilizations/empires residing there.

Biritum/Birit Narim refers to the region within Tigris-Euphrates river system in Western Asia — Biritum/Birit Narim is the Akkadû word for the region while Mesopotamia ([Land] between rivers) is the Ancient Hellenic word and possibly a calque of the Akkadû word. Among the various civilizations/empires that resided in Biritum include Saĝgíg (Sumerians), Assyrians, Babylonians, Haltamtians (Elamites) and Eblaites.

→ [Source: File:N-Mesopotamia and Syria english.svg]

Development History

Early development (~4500 BCE – 2900 BCE)

• Kengir Civilization (Sumerian Civilization) (~4500 BCE – 1900 BCE)
• Uruk period a.k.a. Protoliterate period (~4000 BCE – 3100 BCE), sometimes includes Jemdet Nasr period (~3100 BCE – 2900 BCE)

Kengir Civilization (~4500 BCE – 1900 BCE)

The earliest known Birutumian temples start with the emergence of Kengir, the earliest known civilization of Biritum.

The origin of the Sumerians is not known, but the people of Sumer referred to themselves as “Black Headed Ones” or “Black-Headed People” (𒊕 𒈪, saĝ-gíg, lit. ‘head’ + ‘black’, or 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵, saĝ-gíg-ga phonetically /saŋ ɡi ɡa/, lit. ‘head’ + ‘black’ + ‘carry’). Sumerians referred to their land as Kengir (𒆠𒂗𒄀, k-en-gi(-r) ; Country of the noble lords) as seen in their inscriptions.

Saĝgíg city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods.

Ubaid period (c. 6500 BCE – 3800 BCE)

Ubaid period saw the construction of earliest known Biritumian temples. In South Biritum the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium. In the south it has a long duration of ~6500-3800 BCE when it is replaced by Uruk period. In North Biritum the period runs only between ~5300-4300 BCE.

During this time, the first settlement in southern Biritum was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI 𒉣 𒆠), c. 6500 BCE, by farmers who brought with them Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from Samarran culture from North Biritum. It is not known whether or not these were actual Saĝgíg who are identified with later Uruk culture.

→ Reconstruction of Enki Temple, officially House of the Aquifer (Cuneiform: 𒂍𒍪 𒀊, E2.ZU.AB; Sumerian: e2-abzu; Akkadian: bītu apsû) and later House of the Waters (Cuneiform: 𒂍𒇉, E2.LAGAB×HAL; Sumerian: e2-engur; Akkadian: bītu engurru) in Eridu, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq [Source: File:Eridu temple 7.png]

→ Ruins of Eridu [Source: File:Эриду.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]

Uruk period a.k.a. Protoliterate period (~4000 BCE – 3100 BCE), sometimes includes Jemdet Nasr period (~3100 BCE – 2900 BCE)

Uruk period saw the emergence of urban life in Biritum and Kengir civilization. The late Uruk period (34th-32nd centuries BCE) saw the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script and corresponds to Early Bronze Age. It was during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with cylinder seals.

Late Uruk phase is followed by another phase (level III of Eanna) in which Uruk civilization declined and a number of distinct local cultures developed throughout Western Asia. This is generally known as Jemdet Nasr period , after the archaeological site of that name. Its exact nature is highly debated, and it is difficult to clearly distinguish its traits from those of Uruk culture, so some scholars refer to it as the “Final Uruk” period instead.

Uruk (in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq), the period’s eponymous site is the largest known site. The temple ziggurat at the site is also probably the oldest known Ziggurat — a pyramidal raised site over which a temple is placed.

→ Anu/White Temple Ziggurat at Uruk. The original pyramidal structure, “Anu Ziggurat” dates to ~4000 BCE, and White Temple was built on top of it ~3500 BCE. [Source: File:White Temple ‘E at Uruk, 3500-3000 BCE.jpg]

→ Ruins of Tepe Sialk ziggurat in Kashan, Isfahan Province, Iran (~3000 BCE) [Source: File:Tepe Sialk, Kashan, Irán, 2016-09-19, DD 24.jpg]

→ Development of Temple plans in Late Uruk/Jemdet-Nasr Period using Sin Temple Complex of Khafajah:

1. Levels I-III: The Level I temple seems to have been an entirely new building, as it was built over architectural remains of a different nature. The building featured a tripartite layout — a central long room flanked by side rooms of equal width, with a small courtyard to the east. The side room to the west appears to have housed a staircase leading up to the roof. Levels II and III were increasingly expanded, and during Level III, we can see the tripartite layout begin to give way; the west side room has become narrower than its counterpart to the east, and the staircase it housed previously has been moved into the courtyard.
2. Level IVa and V : This level saw the introduction of an artificial terrace that was augmented by a retaining wall on the east end of the temple, and the courtyard continued to expand in size. The back room on the western end of the building was now closed off and disused, which finalized the change from a tripartite plan to a bent-axis one. Moreover, there was an increase in the quantity of luxurious items during Level IVa, such as pendants, amulet, seals, and statuettes
3. By Level V (c. 3100-2900 BCE) major changes to the form of the temple can be seen in relation to the first temple of Level I (fig. 11). The builders of Level V raised the entire complex—the courtyards and the sanctuary—on one single level and rebuilt the walls. As the sanctuary was raised in Level IV through the installation of an artificial terrace, the complex had become unlevel. The builders of Level V raised the courtyard while lowering the sanctuary and its adjoining rooms. The cella was no longer centrally located in the temple, but rather was an innermost sanctuary.

During Uruk period, builders perfected the use of molded mud-brick as a building material and the use of more solid terracotta bricks became widespread. They also began to waterproof the bricks with bitumen and to use gypsum as mortar. Structures were usually built in clay and stone, notably the limestone, gypsum and sandstone quarried ~50km west of Uruk. New types of decoration came into use, like the use of painted pottery cones to make mosaics, which are characteristic of Eanna in Uruk, semi-engaged columns, and fastening studs.

2 standardized forms of molded mud-brick appear in these buildings from Uruk

• little square bricks which were easy to handle (Riemchen) — used for creating decorative niches and projections
• large bricks used to make terraces (Patzen) — these were used in large public buildings, especially in Uruk.

The creation of smaller bricks enabled the creation of decorative niches and projections which were to be a characteristic feature of Biritumian architecture thereafter. Buildings in Eanna had labyrinthine plans with elongated halls of pillars within a rectangular building.

Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900 BCE – 2350 BCE)

• First Ebla Kingdom (c. 3000 BCE – 2300 BCE)
• First Mari Kingdom (c. 2900 BCE – c.2550 BCE)
• First Saĝgíg Empire (c. 2600 BCE – c. 2500/2450 BCE)
• Second Mari Kingdom (c. 2500 BCE – c. 2290 BCE)

Early Dynastic period saw the development of writing and the formation of first cities and states. It was characterized by the existence of multiple city-states: small states with a relatively simple structure that developed and solidified over time — this development ultimately led to the unification of much of Biritum under the rule of Šarrugi, the first monarch of Māt Akkadi (Akkadian Empire).

The centers of Eridu and Uruk, two of the earliest cities, developed large temple complexes built of mud-brick. Developed as small shrines in the earliest settlements, by this period the temples became the most imposing structures in their cities, each dedicated to its own deity. Each city had at least one major deity. Kengir was divided into 13 independent cities which were divided by canals and boundary stones during Early Dynastic period.

There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features such as cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses. However they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks. Sin Temple in Khafajah (in Diyala Province, Iraq) is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella. Also, during this period high temples (home to the patron deity of the city) began to include a ziggurat. Near the end of this period, stepped pyramidal ziggurats began to be constructed.

The dynastic period was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly “En” (a male figure when it was a temple for a female deity, or a female figure when headed by a male deity) towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great).

---

The Early dynastic period is further divided as follows:

• Early Dynastic Period I (2900 BCE – 2750/2700 BCE)
• Early Dynastic Period II (2750/2700 BCE – 2600 BCE)
• Early Dynastic Period III/First Saĝgíg Empire (2600 BCE – 2350 BCE)

ED I (2900–2750/2700 BCE) is poorly known, relative to the sub-periods that followed it. In South Biritum, it shared characteristics with the final stretches of the Uruk (c. 3300–3100 BCE) and Jemdet Nasr (c. 3100–2900 BCE) periods. ED I is contemporary with the culture of Scarlet Ware pottery typical of sites along the Diyala inSouth Biritum, Ninevite V culture in northern Biritum, and Proto-Elamite culture in southwestern Iran.

→ Plan of Sin Temple VII at Khafajahn, Diyala Province, Iraq; ED-I. Bent-axis and cult statue placement illustrated in most westward room [Source: Sumerian Temple Architecture in Early Mesopotamia]

---

New artistic traditions developed in South Biritum during the ED II (2750/2700–2600 BCE). These traditions influenced the surrounding regions. According to later Biritumian historical tradition, this was the time when legendary mythical kings such as Lugalbanda, Enmerkar, Gilgamesh, and Aga ruled over Biritum. Archaeologically, this sub-period has not been well-attested to in excavations of southern Biritum.

---

ED III (2600–2350 BCE) saw an expansion in the use of writing and increasing social inequality. Larger political entities developed in northern Biritum and southwestern Iran. ED III is usually further subdivided into the ED IIIa (2600–2500/2450 BCE) and ED IIIb (2500/2450–2350 BCE). Royal Cemetery at Ur and the archives of Fara and Abu Salabikh date back to ED IIIa. ED IIIb is especially well known through the archives of Girsu (part of Lagash) in Iraq and Ebla in Syria.

→ Isometric Reconstruction of Sin Temple X, view from the north; ED-III. From Delougaz and Lloyd 1942. Courtesy of Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago [Source: Sumerian Temple Architecture in Early Mesopotamia]

→ Reconstruction of the oval-shaped Sin Temple Complex in Khafajah, Diyala Province, Iraq; ED-III. It was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella. [Source: Exam 3 Flashcards | Chegg.com]

→ Votive relief of Ur-Nanše, king of Lagash, representing the bird-deity Anzu (or Im-dugud) as a lion-headed eagle. Alabaster, Early Dynastic III (2550–2500 BCE); found in Telloh, ancient city of Girsu [Source: File:Relief Im-dugud Louvre AO2783.jpg]

Early dynastic period was followed by the conquests of Akkadians, ending the Kengir civilization and leading to formation of Akkadian Empire.

2350 BCE – 2025 BCE

• Māt Akkadi (Akkadian Empire) (~2334 BCE – 2154 BCE)
• Early Aššur Period (~2600 BCE – 2025 BCE)
• Third Mari Kingdom (c. 2266 BCE – c. 1761 BCE)
• Second Saĝgíg Empire (~2112 BCE – 2004 BCE)

Akkadian Empire , founded by Šarrugi , was the first ancient empire of Biritum, after the long-lived civilization of Kengir. It was centered in the city of Akkadê and its surrounding region. The empire united Akkadû and Saĝgíg populations under one rule.

→ Map of Māt Akkadi (brown) and the directions in which military campaigns were conducted (yellow arrows) [Source: File:Empire akkad.svg – Wikimedia Commons]

→ Screenshot from Sumerian religion – Wikipedia

Initially, the monarchical lugal was subordinate to the priestly ensi, and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the lugal who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own “é” (house or palace), independent from the temple establishment.

With Narām-Sîn , Šarrugi’s grandson, the king was not only being called “Lord of the Four-Quarters (of the Earth)”, but also elevated to the ranks of dingir (deities), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but Akkadian kings, from Narām-Sîn onwards, were considered deities on earth in their lifetimes.

To maintain control of the country, both Šarrugi and Narām-Sîn installed their daughters as high priestess to Sîn, the Akkadian version of Saĝgíg moon deity Nanna, at Urim, in the extreme south of Kengir along with other political moves like installing sons as provincial ensi governors in strategic locations and marrying their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the empire (Urkesh and Marhashe).

→ Ancient Saĝgíg bas-relief portrait depicting Enheduana (third from right). Enheduana was Šarrugi’s daughter, and served as high priestess during the reigns of Šarrugi, Rimuš and Narām-Sîn [Source: File:Disk of Enheduanna (2).jpg – Wikimedia Commons]

Akkadian empire fell, perhaps in 22nd century BCE, ushering in a “Dark Age” with no prominent imperial authority until Second Saĝgíg Empire. After the fall of Akkadian Empire, Biritumians eventually coalesced into 2 major Akkadû-speaking nations: Aššur in north, and, a few centuries later, Bābilim in south.

Early Aššur Period was centred around Aššur city-state (in al-Shirqat District of Saladin Governorate, Iraq). The oldest remains of Aššur were discovered in the foundations of Ishtar temple, as well as at Old Palace. Ushpia , the 16th of the Early Aššur kings (“Kings who lived in tents”) is alleged to have founded the temple for the deity Aššur within the city-state of Aššur, according to the much later inscriptions of Aššur kings: Salmanu-ašared I (~1274 BCE) and Aššur-ahu-iddin (~681 BCE). Little is known about this period otherwise.

→ Layout and expansion of Aššur over the centuries [Source: File:AthurMdinta.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]

Second Saĝgíg Empire (~2112 BCE – 2004 BCE)

Second Saĝgíg Empire refers to a 22nd-21st century BCE Saĝgíg ruling dynasty based in the city of Urim (present-day Ur) and a short-lived territorial-political state.

Classical ziggurats emerged in Second Saĝgíg Period with articulated buttresses, vitreous brick sheathing, and entasis in the elevation. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to the earlier bent-axis approach to the temple.

Among the major developments of this period were construction of Great Ziggurat of Urim (Sumerian: 𒂍𒋼𒅎𒅍 é-temen-ní-gùru) under the kings Ur-Nammu and Šulgi, later rebuilt in 6th century BCE. Ur-Nammu’s ziggurat at Ur was designed as a 3-stage construction, but presently only 2 of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, 2.5m on the 1st lowest stage, and 1.15m on the 2nd. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the 1st and 2nd stages.

→ Reconstruction of Ur-Nammu’s ziggurat [Source: File:Ziggurat of ur.jpg]

A temple of the moon deity Sîn was established sometime at the end of Second Saĝgíg Empire (~2000 BCE) in Harran (in Şanlıurfa, Southeastern Anatolia, Turkey) — this temple was called the House of Rejoicing (Sumerian: E-hul-hul, Cuneiform:𒂍𒄾𒄾 E2.HUL2.HUL2). {The ruins of this temple are located under the palace of ʾUmawīyūn Khalif Marwān ibn Muḥammad (r. 744 CE – 750 CE) .}

Sometime in 2004-1940 BCE, Elamites, allied with the people of Šušen (present-day Susa) and led by Kindattu, king of the Elamite Shimashki dynasty , sacked Urim and lead Saĝgíg king Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the Second Saĝgíg Empire. After this victory, Elamites destroyed the kingdom, and ruled through military occupation for the next 21 years.

Biritum then fell to the semi-nomadic Amorites, who occupied most of southern Biritum by ~19th century BCE. Amorite kings of Dynasty of Isin formed successor states to Second Saĝgíg Empire, starting Isin-Larsa period. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several southern Biritumian city-states, most notably Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later, founding Bābilim as a state.

2025 BCE – 1595 BCE

• Isin-Larsa period (c. 2025 BCE – 1763 BCE)
• Old Aššur Period (Ālu Aššur Period) (c.2025 BCE – 1378 BCE)
• Bābil Empire/Māt Akkadī
  • palû Babili/Amorite Dynasty (c.1894 BCE – 1595 BCE)
  • palû Urukug/First Sealand Dynasty (c.1725 BCE – 1475 BCE)

Isin-Larsa period was initiated by the occupation of most of Biritum by Amorites by forming successor states to Second Saĝgíg Empire. Isin-Larsa period saw successively the emergence of 2 great powers in southern Biritum: the kingdom of Isin , which established the Dynasty of Isin (~1953 BCE –1717 BCE) , and the kingdom of Larsa , whose fall marks the end of the period.

During this period, innovations were few if any and few temples were constructed.

Damiq-ilīšu was defeated by Sîn-muballiṭ of Bābilim and Rīm-Sîn I of Larsa. Rīm-Sîn I himself was defeated by Sîn-muballiṭ’s son Hammurabi, leading to end of Isin-Larsa period.

→ Lamassu statues from Isin-Larsa period (2000-1800 BCE). These are among the early Lamassu representations, showing the deity as a female optionally with wings [Source: File:Lamma Goddess, Iraq, Isin-Larsa period, 2000-1800 BC, bronze, baked clay – Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago – DSC07287.jpg AND File:Statuette en cuivre déesse Lama – Isin-Larsa.jpg]

Old Aššur Period saw the emergence of ālu Aššur (City of the city of deity Aššur) as a stable and expanding polity. The first great temples to the city deity Aššur and the weather deity Adad being erected in Aššur during this period. Temples to the moon deity Sîn and the sun deity Šamaš were erected ~1490 BCE.

The conquest of Shubat-Enlil (present-day Tell Leilan in Al-Hasakah Governorate, Syria) by Aššur king Shamshi-Adad I (1813 BCE – 1781 BCE) revived the abandoned site. In the city a royal palace was built and a temple acropolis to which a straight paved street led from the city gate. Shubat-Enlil served as the capital for ~1754 BCE – 1681 BCE.

Starting sometime after the fall of Second Saĝgíg Empire, the first major ruler of Bābil Empire was founded and ruled by Amorite Dynasty which called itself palû Babili (dynasty of Babylon) and is differentaited from subsequent Baylonian dynastis via designation Dynasty I. Its first major ruler was its 6th king king Hammurabi (r. ~1792 BCE – 1750 BCE) during whose reign, the empre came to refer itself as Māt Akkadī in Akkadû, a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of Akkadian Empire.

→ The extent of First Bābilim Empire at the start and end of Hammurabi’s reign, c. 1792 BC – c. 1750 BC [Source File:Babylone 1.PNG – Wikimedia Commons]

Hammurabi undertook a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples. Hammurabi’s son and successor Samsu-iluna rebuilt the walls of Kish, Nibru and Sippar, and propagated Marutuk cult as had his father. He also apparently restored Ebabbar temple of Šamaš, ziggurats at Sippar, and the ziggurat of Zababa and Ishtar at Kish.

With Hammurabi’s reign, the religious, as well as the political center of influence, was transferred to Babylonia, and consequently Marutuk became lord of the pantheon with many of Enlil’s attributes being transferred to him.

→ Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from either Marutuk or Šamaš. Relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi’s code of laws. [Source: File:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg – Wikipedia]

In Babylonia, an abundance of clay and lack of stone led to greater use of mudbrick. Babylonian temples were thus massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. The scarcity of stone in Babylonia made every stone a commodity and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.

The empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom.

1595 BCE – 900 BCE

• Bābil Empire/Māt Akkadī
  • Kassite Dynasty (1595 BCE – 1155 BCE)
  • palû Išin (dynasty of Išin) (1153 BCE – 1022 BCE)
  • palû tamti (Sealand dynasty)/Second Sealand Dynasty (1021 BCE – 1001 BCE)
  • palû Bazu (dynasty of Baz) (1000 BCE – 981 BCE)
  • palû Elamtu (dynasty of Elam) (980 BCE – 975 BCE)
• Haltamti Empire (1210 BCE – 1100 BCE)
• Middle Assyrian Period (First Māt Aššur) (c. 1392 BCE – 912 BCE)

Kassite Dynasty gained control of Babylonia after the Ḫattuša sack of the city in 1595 BCE, and established a dynasty based first in Bābilim and later in Dur-Kurigalzu.

→ Bābil Empire/Māt Akkadī under Kassite Dynasty [Source: File:Kassite Babylonia EN.svg – Wikimedia Commons]

Nibru, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned ~1730 BCE, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. Under Kassite government, governor of Nibru, who took Saĝgíg-derived title of Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nibru was enough for a series of 13th-century BCE Kassite kings to reassume the title ‘governor of Nibru’ for themselves.

→ Detail, facade of Inanna’s Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum [Source: File:Detail, facade of Inanna’s Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg]

The Kassite king Kurigalzu I established the city Dur-Kurigalzu (in Baghdad Governorate, Iraq) sometime in 14th century BCE. The city served as the capital, and had several temples and a ziggurat.

→ Partially restored Dur-Kurigalzu ziggurat [Source: File:The ziggurat at Aqar Quf.jpg]

→ Stele with inscription showing the deity Lamassu, dedicated by king Nazi-Maruttaš to the deity Ishtar (1307-1282 BCE). It shows a slightly later representation of Lamassu [Source: File:Stele of the protective goddess Lama MET DP-1556-001.jpg]

Haltamtians conquered Babylonia in 12th century BCE, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Šušen and imprisoned there, where he died. Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty V (1025-1004 BCE); however, they were deposed once more, this time by Aramean dynasty.

Haltamti Empire was established under Shutrukids in Middle Haltamti period. The Haltamti king Untash-Napirisha founded and built extensively a new city, Dur-Untash (present-day Chogha Zanbil in Khuzestan Province, Iran).

At Chogha Zanbil ziggurat, archaeologists found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.

→ Chogha Zanbil ziggurat in Chogha Zanbil, Khuzestan Province, Iran (Built c. 1250 BCE under Untash-Napirisha)

1. A view of the ziggurat [Source: File:زیگورات چغا زنبیل.jpg]

2. Plan of Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat [Screenshot from Ziggurat Architecture in Mesopotamia]

→ Middle-Haltamti model of a sun ritual dating ~1150 BCE, found in Susa, Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran [Source: File:Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BCE.jpg]

The conquest of Nibru by Haltamti in 1230 BCE led to decline of cult of Enlil, who till this time was regarded as the chief of Saĝgíg deities. His role was fulfilled by Marutuk for Babylonians and Aššur for Assyrians.

Middle Assyrian Period, corresponding to First Aššur Empire (māt Aššur; Country of the city of deity Aššur), saw the destruction of numerous temples and plundering in Bābilim. First Aššur Empire was well organized, and in the firm control of the king, who also functioned as the high priest of Aššur, the state deity. He had certain obligations to fulfill in the cult, and had to provide resources for the temples.

→ Max extent of First Aššur Empire [Source: File:Médio-assyrien.png – Wikimedia Commons]

Assyrian architecture, like that of Babylonia, was influenced by Saĝgíg-Akkadian styles (and to some degree Mitanni), but early on developed its own distinctive style. It saw the introduction of a new style of ziggurat, with 2 towers and colorful enameled tiles.

During the reign of Tukultī-apil-Ešarra II , the first Assyrian Lamassu motif (with human head, bull/lion body and wings) appears as a symbol of power.

First Aššur Empire were not unduly affected by the tumultuous events of Bronze Age Collapse (1200–900 BCE) for 150 years, perhaps the only ancient power that was not. However, upon the death of Aššūr-bēl-kala (r. 1074–1056 BCE) in 1056 BCE, Aššur Empire went into a comparative decline for the next 100 or so years. The empire shrank significantly, and by 1020 BCE Aššur Empire appears to have controlled only areas close to Assyria itself, essential to keeping trade routes open in eastern Aramea, south eastern Asia Minor, central Biritum and north western Iran. Shortly after, in 911 BCE, Second Aššur Empire was founded.

900 BCE – 400 BCE

• Neo-Assyrian Period (Second Māt Aššur) (911 BCE – 609 BCE)
• Neo-Babylonian Period : Bābil Empire/Māt Akkadī
  • 10th Babylonian Dynasty/Chaldean dynasty (626 BCE – 539 BCE)

Neo-Assyrian Period corresponds to Second Aššur Empire (māt Aššur; Country of the city of deity Aššur) was an Iron Age Biritumian empire formed following the conquests of Adad-nirari II in late 10th century BCE.

→ Extent of Second Aššur Empire [Source: File:Map of Assyria.png – Wikimedia Commons]

During this period, Hellenic civilzation was in regular contact with Biritum, particularly since ~800 BCE, beginning the Orientalizing Period (800–480 BCE) of Hellenic civilization, thereby influencing Hellenic temple architecture.

→

1. A Neo-Assyrian relief of the deity Aššur as a feather robed archer holding a bow (9th-8th century BCE) [Source: File:Ashur god.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
2. Late Assyrian seal — Worshipper between Nabû and Marutuk, standing on their servant dragon Mušḫuššu (8th century BCE) [Source: File:Image from page 39 of “Ancient seals of the Near East” (1940).jpg – Wikipedia]

Assyrian sculpture typically placed prominent pairs of Lamassu at entrances in palaces, facing the street and also internal courtyards. They were represented as “double-aspect” figures on corners, in high relief. From the front they appear to stand, and from the side, walk, and in earlier versions have 5 legs, as is apparent when viewed.

→ Assyrian Lamassu sculptures:

1. Cast from the original in Iraq, this is one of a pair of 5-legged Lamassu with lion’s feet in Berlin, Germany [Source: File:Door guardian figure (Lamassu) from Nimrud 2.jpg]
2. Human-headed winged bulls from Šarru-kīn II’s palace in Dur-Sharrukin, modern Khorsabad, Iraq [Source: File:Human-headed Winged Bulls Gate – Louvre.jpg]

→ Reconstructed Model of Palace of Šarru-kīn at Khorsabad, with ziggurat highlighted [Source: File:Reconstructed Model of Palace of Sargon at Khosrabad 1905.jpg]

After Dur-Sharrukin, Ninua was made the capital. During Second Aššur Empire, particularly from the time of Aššur-nāṣir-apli II (r. 883–859 BCE) onward, there was considerable architectural expansion. Successive monarchs such as Tukultī-apil-Ešarra III, Šarru-kīn II, Sîn-aḥḥē-erība, Aššur-aḫa-iddina, and Aššur-bāni-apli maintained and founded new temples to Sîn, Aššur, Nergal, Šamaš, Ninurta, Ishtar, Tammuz, Nisroch and Nabiu.

After Ninua, Harran (in Turkey) was made the last capital. Harran’s Sin Temple (constructed during Second Saĝgíg empire) was restored first by Šulmānu-ašarēdu III in 9th century BEC, and again by Aššur-bāni-apli in ~550 BCE.

→ Reconstruction of the peribolos at Bābilim, including the temple of Esagila. Temple of Esagila was initially built by king Aššur-aḫa-iddina [Source: File:Reconstruction of the peribolos at Babylon, including the temple of Esagila.jpg]

Upon the death of Aššur-bāni-apli in 631 BCE, the empire began to disintegrate due to a brutal and unremitting series of civil wars in Assyria proper. In 616 BCE, ᴴuvaxštra, king of Medes and Iranians, made alliances with Babylonian king Nabû-apla-uṣur as well as Skuδatā (Scythians) and Cimmerians against Assyria. At the Fall of Harran (609 BCE), Babylonians and Medes defeated an Aššurian-Kemetian alliance, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an independent state. A last defeat at Harran ended the Second Aššur Empire.

Neo-Babylonian Period corresponds to Bābil Empire under its last native dynasty, and begun with Nabû-apla-uṣur ‘s coronation as king of Bābilim in 626 BCE and being firmly established through the fall of Second Aššur Empire in 612 BCE.

→ Bābil Empire under Nabû-naʾid (r. 556–539 BCE) [Source: Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus map.png – Wikimedia Commons]

This period of Bābil Empire rule saw unprecedented economic and population growth throughout Babylonia and a renaissance of culture and artwork, with Bābilim rulers conducting massive building projects, especially in Bābilim itself, and bringing back many elements from the previous ~2000 years of Saĝgíg-Akkadian culture.

Artists in Bābil Empire period continued the artistic trends of previous periods, showing similarities with the artwork of Second Aššur Empire period in particular. Cylinder seals of the period are less detailed than in previous times and shows definite Assyrian influence in the themes depicted. Cylinder seals increasingly fell into disuse over the course of Neo-Babylonian period, eventually being entirely replaced by stamp seals.

Terracotta figurines and reliefs, made using molds, were common during this period. Preserved figurines usually represent protective demons (such as Pazuzu ) or deities but there are also examples of horsemen, naked women, boats, men carrying vases and various types of furniture. Terracotta figurines could be sacred objects intended to be kept in people’s homes for magical protection or as decorations, but they could also be objects offered to deities in the temples.

Ancient artworks from the heyday of Babylonia’s imperial glory were treated with near-religious reverence and were painstakingly preserved — when a statue of Šarrugi was found during construction work, a temple was built for it, and it was given offerings. Babylonians also revived the Akkadian practice of appointing a royal daughter to serve as priestess of Sîn.

Etemenanki (Sumerian: 𒂍𒋼𒀭𒆠 É.TEMEN.AN.KI; temple of the foundation of heaven and earth) was reconstructed during this period: work was started by Assyrian king Aššur-aḫa-iddina (r. 681-669 BCE), and continued under Nabû-apla-uṣur (r. 626-605 BCE) followed by his son & successor Nabû-kudurri-uṣur II (605-562 BCE) who rebuilt the ziggurat. The last Bābilim ruler Nabû-naʾid restored Great Ziggurat of Urim in 6th century BCE, but in 7 stages rather than the original 3.

→ Reconstruction of Etemenanki [Source: File:Etemenanki drawing.gif]

Religious policies introduced by the final Babylonian king Nabû-naʾid, who favoured the moon god Sîn over Bābilim’s patron deity Marutuk, eventually served as a casus belli for Iranian king Kūruš II, who invaded Babylonia in 539 BCR by portraying himself as a champion of Marutuk divinely restoring order to Niritum. Babylonia remained culturally distinct for centuries, with references to people with Babylonian names and references to the Babylonian religion known from as late as the period of the Parθavan Empire in the 1st century BCE. Although Babylonia revolted several times during the rule of later empires, it never successfully restored its independence.

Structural Details

Clay Nail

Clay nails were used by Saĝgíg and other Biritumian cultures beginning in 3rd millennium BCE. They were cone-shaped nails made of clay, inscribed with cuneiform, baked, and stuck into the mudbrick walls to serve as evidence that the temple or building was the divine property of the deity to whom it was dedicated. Versions were also made of metal, including castings with figurative designs, such as Hurrian foundation pegs (Syria, c. 2300 – c. 2159 BCE).

→ Clay Nails examples:

1. Foundation nail of E-ninnu [Source: File:Foundation nail IMG 0073-black.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]
2. A Hurrian foundation peg [Source: File:Hurrian foundation document-AO 19937-IMG 3470-gradient.jpg – Wikimedia Commons]

É (Cuneiform: 𒂍; Temple)

É is the Saĝgíg word for house or temple. The Sumerian term É.GAL (𒂍𒃲 ; palace, literally big house) denoted a city’s main building. É.LUGAL (𒂍𒈗 ; king’s house) was used synonymously. In the texts of Lagash, the É.GAL is the center of the ensi’s administration of the city, and the site of the city archives. The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron deity of the city, and often constructed on a ziggurat. Functionally, a high temple served as a storage and distribution centre as well as housing the priesthood.

Chronologically, Saĝgíg temples evolved from earlier Ubaid temples. As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations. The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple. The evolution of the E2.abzu temple at Eridu is a frequently cited case-study of this process. Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at Tell Uqair.

The form of a Saĝgíg temple is manifestation of Near Eastern cosmology, which described the world as a disc of land which was surrounded by a salt water ocean, both of which floated on another sea of fresh water called apsu, above them was a hemispherical firmament which regulated time. A world mountain formed an axis mundi that joined all 3 layers. The role of the temple was to act as that axis mundi, a meeting place between deities and humans. The sacredness of ‘high places’ as a meeting point between realms is a pre-Ubaid belief. The plan of the temple was rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the 4 rivers which flow from the mountain to the 4 world regions. The orientation also served a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for Saĝgíg timekeeping. The temple was built on a low terrace of rammed earth meant to represent the sacred mound of primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, ‘pure mound’ (Sumerian: du6-ku3) during creation.

The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the deities, and the doors of the short axis the entry point for people. This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall. The bent axis approach is an innovation from Ubaid temples which had a linear axis approach, and is also a feature of Saĝgíg houses. An offering table was located in the centre of the temple at the intersection of the axes.

Ubaid period saw temple with 2 types of plans:

• The tripartite plan had a large central hall with 2 smaller flanking halls on either side. The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long axis.
• The T-shaped plan was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the rectangle perpendicular to the main hall.

Temples of Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T-shaped, or combined plans, of which the first 2 were inherited from Ubaid period. Temple C from Eanna district of Uruk is a case-study of classical temple form.

→ Development of Temple plans in Late Uruk/Jemdet-Nasr Period using Sin Temple Complex of Khafajah:

1. Levels I-III: The Level I temple seems to have been an entirely new building, as it was built over architectural remains of a different nature. The building featured a tripartite layout — a central long room flanked by side rooms of equal width, with a small courtyard to the east. The side room to the west appears to have housed a staircase leading up to the roof. Levels II and III were increasingly expanded, and during Level III, we can see the tripartite layout begin to give way; the west side room has become narrower than its counterpart to the east, and the staircase it housed previously has been moved into the courtyard.
2. Level IVa and V : This level saw the introduction of an artificial terrace that was augmented by a retaining wall on the east end of the temple, and the courtyard continued to expand in size. The back room on the western end of the building was now closed off and disused, which finalized the change from a tripartite plan to a bent-axis one. Moreover, there was an increase in the quantity of luxurious items during Level IVa, such as pendants, amulet, seals, and statuettes
3. By Level V (c. 3100-2900 BCE) major changes to the form of the temple can be seen in relation to the first temple of Level I (fig. 11). The builders of Level V raised the entire complex—the courtyards and the sanctuary—on one single level and rebuilt the walls. As the sanctuary was raised in Level IV through the installation of an artificial terrace, the complex had become unlevel. The builders of Level V raised the courtyard while lowering the sanctuary and its adjoining rooms. The cella was no longer centrally located in the temple, but rather was an innermost sanctuary.

There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features like cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses, but took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks. Sin Temple in Khafajah is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella.

→ Plan of Sin Temple VII at Khafajahn, Diyala Province, Iraq; ED-I. Bent-axis and cult statue placement illustrated in most westward room [Source: Sumerian Temple Architecture in Early Mesopotamia]

→ Isometric Reconstruction of Sin Temple X, view from the north; ED-III. From Delougaz and Lloyd 1942. Courtesy of Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago [Source: Sumerian Temple Architecture in Early Mesopotamia]

→ Reconstruction of the oval-shaped Sin Temple Complex in Khafajah, Diyala Province, Iraq; ED-III. It was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella. [Source: Exam 3 Flashcards | Chegg.com]

Ziggurats

Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers which were first built in Kengir City-States and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well.

Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top over which a high temple was constructed — the number of tiers ranged between 2–7. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit.

Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colours and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks.

Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex that included a courtyard, storage rooms, bathrooms, and living quarters, around which a city spread.

Practical functions suggested for ziggurats:

• a high place on which the priests could escape rising water that annually inundated lowlands and occasionally flooded for hundreds of kilometers
• security: since the shrine was accessible only by way of 3 stairways, a small number of guards could prevent non-priests from spying on the rituals at the shrine on top of the ziggurat, such as initiation rituals like Eleusinian mysteries, cooking of sacrificial food and burning of carcasses of sacrificial animals.

→ Partially reconstructed facade and the access staircase of the Ziggurat of Urim, Iraq. The actual remains of the Neo-Babylonian structure can be seen at the top. [Source: File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg]